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In addition to the verb to be, certain other verbs can
be followed by predicate adjectives. Such verbs are sometimes
referred to as linking verbs, since they can link nouns or
pronouns to modifying adjectives. For instance, the following
verbs can be used as linking verbs.

In the above examples, the linking verbs link noun subjects
with predicate adjectives

When a verb is used as a linking verb, it is intransitive,
since it does not take an object. It should be noted that many of
the verbs listed above can also be used transitively.

• e.g. The child felt the blankets.

• We smelled the soup.

In these examples, the verbs to feel and to
smell are used transitively, taking the objects
blankets and soup respectively.

4. INTERPOLATED ADJECTIVES

As well as being used as attributive or predicate adjectives,
general descriptive adjectives and adjectives indicating color can also be
placed elsewhere in a sentence. When used in this way, adjectives
can be said to be interpolated into a sentence. In the
following sentences, the interpolated adjectives are
underlined.

• e.g. The child, happy and excited, ran along the
  beach.

• Startled, the small yellow bird stopped singing.

• Tense, expectant and alert, we waited to see what would
  happen.

Since the use of interpolated adjectives is
somewhat uncommon, the use of interpolation can serve to
emphasize the adjectives. Interpolated adjectives are most often
placed immediately after a noun, as shown in the first example;
or before a noun or pronoun at the beginning of a sentence, as
shown in the second and third examples.As illustrated above, a
noun can be modified simultaneously by both interpolated and
attributive adjectives. For instance, in the second example, the
noun bird is modified by both the interpolated adjective
startled and the attributive adjectives the small
yellow.Care must be taken in the positioning of interpolated
adjectives, since the reader or listener will usually assume that
the adjectives modify the nearest noun or pronoun.As can be seen
from the examples, the punctuation of interpolated adjectives is
similar to that of predicate adjectives. When more than one
adjective is used, the last two adjectives are separated from one
another by the word
and, and previous adjectives are separated from one
another by commas.However, unlike predicate adjectives,
interpolated adjectives must also be separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas. For instance, in the first example above,
the interpolated adjectives happy and excited are
separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma before the
word happy, and a comma following the word excited.
Likewise, in the second example, the interpolated adjective
startled is separated from the rest of the sentence by a
comma; and in the third example, the interpolated adjectives
tense, expectant and alert are separated from the rest of
the sentence by a comma following the word alert.

Interpolated adjectives are used more often in
written English than in spoken English.5. ADJECTIVAL PHRASES
AND CLAUSES

Nouns and pronouns can be modified not only by adjectives, but
also by adjectival phrases and clauses. In the following
examples, the adjectival phrases and clauses are underlined.

• e.g. The table near the door is made of oak.

• The one on the desk is mine.

• The chair, which was placed in front of the window, was an
  heirloom.

• Those who decide to come will not be disappointed.

In the first example, the noun table is modified by the
adjectival phrase near the door. In the second example,
the pronoun one is modified by the adjectival phrase on
the desk. In the third example, the noun chair is
modified by the adjectival clause which was placed in front of
the window. In the fourth example, the pronoun those
is modified by the adjectival clause who decide to come.
It should be noted that phrases do not contain verbs, whereas
clauses do contain verbs. Phrases and clauses will be discussed
further in the chapters dealing with prepositions and
conjunctions. As illustrated in the preceding examples, an
adjectival phrase or clause usually immediately follows the noun
or pronoun being modified.

6. PARTICIPLES USED AS ADJECTIVES

As has already been mentioned, present and past participles of
verbs can be used as adjectives.

A. PRESENT PARTICIPLES

Present participles used as adjectives refer to actions being
performed by the things being described. In the following
examples the present participles used as adjectives are
underlined.

• e.g. the falling star

• the barking dog

The first example indicates that the star is performing the
action of falling. The second example indicates that the dog is
performing the action of barking.

B. PAST PARTICIPLES

Past participles used as adjectives refer to actions which
have been performed on the things being described. In the
following examples, the past participles used as adjectives are
underlined.

• e.g. the scattered leaves

• the broken drum

The first example indicates that something has scattered the
leaves. The second example indicates that something has broken
the drum.

C. DANGLING PARTICIPLES

As well as being used as attributive and predicate adjectives,
past and present participles can also be used at the beginning of
adjectival phrases interpolated into a sentence. In the following
sentences, the interpolated adjectival phrases are underlined. As
illustrated by the examples, an interpolated phrase must be
separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

• e.g. Feeling hungry, the child ate an apple

• . Disconcerted by the news, we headed for the nearest
  farmhouse.

In the first example, the present participle feeling
begins the adjectival phrase feeling hungry, which
modifies the noun child. In the second example, the past
participle disconcerted begins the adjectival phrase
disconcerted by the news, which modifies the pronoun
we.

Since the listener or reader tends to assume that an
interpolated adjectival phrase is meant to modify the nearest
noun or pronoun, care must be taken to make sure that such a
phrase is positioned close to the noun or pronoun to be modified.
A participle that begins an interpolated phrase that is not
sufficiently close to the noun or pronoun to be modified is
usually referred to as a dangling participle. Dangling
participles can result in ambiguity, or in sentences which do not
make sense.

In the following sentences, the phrases beginning with
dangling participles are underlined.

• e.g. The photographer focused the camera, holding his
  breath

• .Running across the road, his hat blew off.

In the first example, the noun to be modified is
photographer. However, the phrase holding his
breath is separated from the noun to be modified by the noun
camera. Thus, the phrase holding his breath seems
to modify the noun camera. In the second example, the noun
or pronoun to be modified is missing from the sentence, and the
phrase running across the road seems to modify the noun
hat.

These example illustrate two basic types of dangling
participle. In one type, the participle begins an adjectival
phrase which is separated from the noun or pronoun to be modified
by another noun or pronoun. In the other type, the participle
begins an adjectival phrase that is meant to modify a noun or
pronoun which in fact is not present in the sentence.

When an adjectival phrase is separated from the noun or
pronoun to be modified by another noun or pronoun, the sentence
can be corrected by positioning the adjectival phrase next to the
noun or pronoun to be modified. This can often be accomplished by
moving the phrase from one end of the sentence to the other.

For instance, in the sentences below, the nouns to be modified
and the phrases containing dangling participles are
underlined.

• e.g. The photographer focused the camera, holding his
  breath.

• Working as quickly as possible, our car was repaired by a
  mechanic.

• Lost for over thirty years, she was overjoyed to find the
  diaries.

In these examples, holding his breath seems to modify
the noun camera, working as quickly as possible
seems to modify the noun car, and lost for over thirty
years seems to modify the pronoun she.

These sentences can be corrected as follows.

• e.g. Holding his breath, the photographer focused the
  camera.

• Our car was repaired by a mechanic, working as quickly as
  possible.

• She was overjoyed to find the diaries, lost for over
  thirty years.

In the corrected sentences, the adjectival phrases are
correctly positioned near the nouns to be modified.

When an adjectival phrase is meant to modify a noun or pronoun
which in fact is not present in the sentence, the sentence can be
corrected by rewriting either the adjectival phrase or the rest
of the sentence, so that the missing noun or pronoun is supplied.
For instance, in the sentences below, the phrases containing
dangling participles are underlined.

• e.g. Running across the road, his hat blew off

• . Sitting lost in thought, the book slipped from her
  hand.

• Determined not to be late, our watches were set ten
  minutes fast.

These sentences can be corrected as follows. In the corrected
sentences, the noun or pronoun which was missing from the
original sentence is underlined. Two corrected versions are given
for each of the preceding sentences.

• e.g. As he ran across the road, his hat blew off.

• Running across the road, he lost his hat.

• As she sat lost in thought, the book slipped from her
  hand

• .Sitting lost in thought, she let the book slip from her
  hand.

• Because we were determined not to be late, our watches
  were set ten minutes fast.

• Determined not to be late, we set our watches ten minutes
  fast.

In the first corrected version of each of the preceding
sentences, the adjectival phrase has been changed to an
adjectival clause containing the pronoun which was missing from
the original sentence. Thus, the interpolated phrase running
across the road has been changed to the subordinate clause
as he ran across the road, the interpolated phrase
sitting lost in thought has been changed to the
subordinate clause as she sat lost in thought, and the
interpolated phrase determined not to be late has been
changed to the subordinate clause because we were determined
not to be late.

In the second corrected version of each of the sentences, the
main clause of the sentence has been rewritten so that the
pronoun which was missing from the original sentence is
positioned next to the adjectival phrase which is meant to modify
the pronoun. Thus, whereas in the incorrect sentences, the
underlined adjectival phrases seem to modify the adjacent nouns
hat, book and watches; in the corrected
sentences, the adjectival phrases correctly modify the pronouns
he, she and we.

D. PAST PARTICIPLES WHICH FOLLOW THE VERB TO BE

In English, the verb to be followed by a past
participle used as a predicate adjective has the same form as a
verb in the Passive Voice. This feature of the language can
result in ambiguity. For instance, the following examples each
have more than one possible meaning.

• e.g. The doors will be closed at nine o'clock.

• The train was stopped at midnight.

In the first example, will be closed could
be the Simple Future of the verb to be, followed by the
predicate adjective closed. In this case, the sentence
would have the meaning that at nine o'clock, the doors will not
be open. On the other hand, will be closed could be the
Simple Future Passive of the verb to close. In this case,
the sentence would imply that at nine o'clock, someone will close
the doors.Similarly, in the second example, was stopped
could be the Simple Past of the verb to be, followed by
the predicate adjective stopped. In this case, the
sentence would indicate that at midnight, the train was not
moving. On the other hand, was stopped could be the Simple
Past Passive of the verb to stop. In this case, the
sentence would imply that at midnight, someone stopped the
train.

DEGREES OF ADJECTIVES

Adjectives can express degrees of
modification:

• Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is
  richer than Gladys, and Sadie is the
  richest woman in town.

The degrees of comparison are known as the positive,
the comparative, and the superlative. (Actually,
only the comparative and superlative show degrees.) We use the
comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for
comparing three or more things. Notice that the word
than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word
the precedes the superlative. The inflected suffixes
-er and -est suffice to form most comparatives
and superlatives, although we need -ier and
-iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y
(happier and happiest); otherwise we use more and
most when an adjective has more than one syllable.

Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and
superlative degrees:

Be careful not to form comparatives or superlatives of
adjectives which already express an extreme of comparison —
unique, for instance — although it probably is
possible to form comparative forms of most adjectives: something
can be more perfect, and someone can have a
fuller figure. People who argue that one woman cannot be
more pregnant than another have never been nine-months
pregnant with twins.

According to Bryan Garner, "complete" is one of those
adjectives that does not admit of comparative degrees.
We could say, however, "more nearly complete." I am sure that I
have not been consistent in my application of this principle in
the Guide (I can hear myself, now, saying something like "less
adequate" or "more preferable" or "less fatal"). Other adjectives
that Garner would include in this list are as follows:

Be careful, also, not to use more along with a
comparative adjective formed with -er nor to use
most along with a superlative adjective formed with
-est (e.g., do not write that something is more heavier
or most heaviest).

The as — as construction is used to create a
comparison expressing equality:

• He is as foolish as he is large.

• She is as bright as her mother.

PREMODIFIERS WITH DEGREES OF ADJECTIVES

Both adverbs and adjectives in their comparative and
superlative forms can be accompanied by premodifiers, single
words and phrases, that intensify the degree.

• We were a lot more careful this time.

• He works a lot less carefully than the other jeweler in
  town.

• We like his work so much better.

• You'll get your watch back all the faster.

The same process can be used to downplay the degree:

• The weather this week has been somewhat better.

• He approaches his schoolwork a little less industriously
  than his brother does.

And sometimes a set phrase, usually an informal noun phrase,
is used for this purpose:

• He arrived a whole lot sooner than we expected.

• That's a heck of a lot better.

If the intensifier very accompanies the superlative,
a determiner is also required:

• She is wearing her very finest outfit for the
  interview.

• They're doing the very best they can.

Occasionally, the comparative or superlative form appears with
a determiner and the thing being modified is understood:

• Of all the wines produced in Connecticut, I like this one
  the most.

• The quicker you finish this project, the better.

• Of the two brothers, he is by far the faster.

THE ORDER OF ADJECTIVES IN A SERIES

It would take a linguistic philosopher to explain why we say
"little brown house" and not "brown little house" or why we say
"red Italian
sports car" and not "Italian red sports car." The order in which
adjectives in a series sort themselves out is perplexing for
people learning English as a second language. Most other
languages dictate a similar order, but not necessarily the same
order. It takes a lot of practice with a language before this
order becomes instinctive, because the order often seems quite
arbitrary (if not downright capricious). There is, however, a
pattern. You will find many exceptions to the pattern in the
table below, but it is definitely important to learn the pattern
of adjective order if it is not part of what you naturally bring
to the language.

The categories in the following table can be described as
follows:

• Determiners — articles and other limiters.
  See Determiners

• Observation — postdeterminers and limiter
  adjectives (e.g., a real hero, a perfect idiot) and
  adjectives subject to subjective measure (e.g., beautiful,
  interesting)

• Size and Shape — adjectives subject to
  objective measure (e.g., wealthy, large, round)

• Age — adjectives denoting age (e.g., young,
  old, new, ancient)

• Color — adjectives denoting color (e.g., red,
  black, pale)

• Origin — denominal adjectives denoting source
  of noun (e.g., French, American, Canadian)

• Material — denominal adjectives denoting what
  something is made of (e.g., woolen, metallic, wooden)

• Qualifier — final limiter, often regarded as
  part of the noun (e.g., rocking chair, hunting cabin,
  passenger car, book cover)

It would be folly, of course, to run more than two or three
(at the most) adjectives together. Furthermore, when adjectives
belong to the same class, they become what we call coordinated
adjectives, and you will want to put a comma between them: the
inexpensive, comfortable shoes. The rule for inserting the comma
works this way: if you could have inserted a conjunction —
and or but — between the two adjectives,
use a comma. We could say these are "inexpensive but comfortable
shoes," so we would use a comma between them (when the "but"
isn't there). When you have three coordinated adjectives,
separate them all with commas, but don't insert a comma between
the last adjective and the noun (in spite of the temptation to do
so because you often pause there):

a popular, respected, and good looking student

See the section on Commas for additional help in punctuating
coordinated adjectives.

CAPITALIZING PROPER ADJECTIVES

When an adjective owes its origins to a proper noun, it should
probably be capitalized. Thus we write about Christian music,
French fries, the English Parliament, the Ming Dynasty, a
Faulknerian style, Jeffersonian democracy. Some periods of time
have taken on the status of proper adjectives: the Nixon era, a
Renaissance/Romantic/Victorian poet (but a contemporary novelist
and medieval writer). Directional and seasonal adjectives are not
capitalized unless they're part of a title:

We took the northwest route during the spring thaw. We stayed
there until the town's annual Fall Festival of Small
Appliances.

See the section on Capitalization for further help on this
matter.

COLLECTIVE ADJECTIVES

When the definite article, the, is combined with an
adjective describing a class or group of people, the resulting
phrase can act as a noun: the poor, the rich, the oppressed, the
homeless, the lonely, the unlettered, the unwashed, the gathered,
the dear departed. The difference between a Collective Noun
(which is usually regarded as singular but which can be plural in
certain contexts) and a collective adjective is that the latter
is always plural and requires a plural verb:

• The rural poor have been ignored by the media.

• The rich of Connecticut are responsible.

• The elderly are beginning to demand their rights.

• The young at heart are always a joy to be around.

ADJECTIVAL OPPOSITES

The opposite or the negative aspect of an adjective can be
formed in a number of ways. One way, of course, is to find an
adjective to mean the opposite — an antonym. The opposite
of beautiful is ugly, the opposite of
tall is short. A thesaurus can help you find an
appropriate opposite. Another way to form the opposite of an
adjective is with a number of prefixes. The opposite of
fortunate is unfortunate, the opposite of
prudent is imprudent, the opposite of
considerate is inconsiderate, the opposite of
honorable is dishonorable, the opposite of
alcoholic is nonalcoholic, the opposite of
being properly filed is misfiled. If you are
not sure of the spelling of adjectives modified in this way by
prefixes (or which is the appropriate prefix), you will have to
consult a dictionary, as the rules for the selection of a prefix
are complex and too shifty to be trusted. The meaning itself can
be tricky; for instance, flammable and inflammable mean the same
thing.

A third means for creating the opposite of an adjective is to
combine it with less or least to create a
comparison which points in the opposite direction. Interesting
shades of meaning and tone become available with this usage. It
is kinder to say that "This is the least beautiful city in the
state." than it is to say that "This is the ugliest city in the
state." (It also has a slightly different meaning.) A candidate
for a job can still be worthy and yet be "less worthy of
consideration" than another candidate. It's probably not a good
idea to use this construction with an adjective that is already a
negative: "He is less unlucky than his brother," although that is
not the same thing as saying he is luckier than his brother. Use
the comparative less when the comparison is between two
things or people; use the superlative least when the
comparison is among many things or people.

• My mother is less patient than my father.

• Of all the new sitcoms, this is my least favorite
  show.

SOME ADJECTIVAL PROBLEM CHILDREN

In both casual speech and formal writing, we frequently have
to choose between the adjective good and the adverb
well. With most verbs, there is no contest: when
modifying a verb, use the adverb.

He swims well.

He knows only too well who the murderer is.

However, when using a linking verb or a verb that has to do
with the five human senses, you want to use the adjective
instead.

How are you? I'm feeling good, thank you.

After a bath, the baby smells so good.

Even after my careful paint job, this
room doesn't look good.

Many careful writers, however, will use well after
linking verbs relating to health, and this is perfectly all
right. In fact, to say that you are good or that you
feel good usually implies not only that you're OK
physically but also that your spirits are high.

• "How are you?"

"I am well, thank you."

OTHER ADJECTIVAL CONSIDERATIONS

Review the section on Compound Nouns and Modifiers for the
formation of modifiers created when words are connected: a
four-year-old child, a nineteenth-century novel, an empty-headed
fool.

Review the section on Possessives for a distinction between
possessive forms and "adjectival labels." (Do you belong to a
Writers Club or a Writers' Club?)

Adjectives that are really Participles, verb forms with
-ing and -ed endings, can be troublesome for
some students. It is one thing to be a frightened child;
it is an altogether different matter to be a frightening
child. Do you want to go up to your professor after class and say
that you are confused or that you are
confusing? Generally, the -ed ending means that
the noun so described ("you") has a passive relationship with
something — something (the subject matter, the
presentation) has bewildered you and you are confused. The
-ing ending means that the noun described has a more
active role — you are not making any sense so you are
confusing (to others, including your professor).

The -ed ending modifiers are often accompanied by
prepositions (these are not the only choices):

• We were amazed at all the circus animals.

• We were amused by the clowns.

• We were annoyed by the elephants.

• We were bored by the ringmaster.

• We were confused by the noise.

• We were disappointed by the motorcycle
  daredevils.

• We were disappointed in their performance.

• We were embarrassed by my brother.

• We were exhausted from all the excitement.

• We were excited by the lion-tamer.

• We were excited about the high-wire act, too.

• We were frightened by the lions.

• We were introduced to the ringmaster.

• We were interested in the tent.

• We were irritated by the heat.

• We were opposed to leaving early.

• We were satisfied with the circus.

• We were shocked at the level of noise under the big
  tent.

• We were surprised by the fans' response.

• We were surprised at their indifference.

• We were tired of all the lights after a while.

• We were worried about the traffic leaving the
  parking lot.

A- ADJECTIVES

The most common of the so-called a- adjectives are
ablaze, afloat, afraid, aghast, alert, alike, alive, alone,
aloof, ashamed, asleep, averse, awake, aware. These adjectives
will primarily show up as predicate adjectives (i.e., they come
after a linking verb).

• The children were ashamed.

• The professor remained aloof.

• The trees were ablaze.

Occasionally, however, you will find a- adjectives
before the word they modify: the alert patient, the
aloof physician. Most of them, when found before the word they
modify, are themselves modified: the nearly awake student, the
terribly alone scholar. And a- adjectives are sometimes modified
by "very much": very much afraid, very much alone, very much
ashamed, etc.

VERB

Is a word (part of speech) that usually denotes an action
(bring, read), an occurrence
(decompose, glitter), or a state of being
(exist, stand). Depending on the language,

Verbs have two important functions:

Some verbs put static objects into motion while other verbs
help to clarify the objects in meaningful ways, for examples:

THE PREPOSITION

Prepositions are the words that indicate location. Usually,
prepositions show this location in the physical world, for
example:

The puppy is on the floor. The puppy is in the
trashcan.

The puppy is beside the phone

He's in the jailhouse now." (Where) The word in is a
preposition. The word jailhouse is a noun. The noun is called the
object of the preposition. This prepositional phrase provides a
sense of location, a sense of where something is located. The
quoted words are part of a song from the movie, Oh Brother, Where
Art Thou?

A preposition describes a relationship between other words in
a sentence. In itself, a word like "in" or "after" is rather
meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For instance, when
you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or
"on," you invariably use your hands to show how something is
situated in relationship to something else. Prepositions are
nearly always combined with other words in structures called
prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases can be made up of a
million different words, but they tend to be built the same: a
preposition followed by a determiner and an adjective or two,
followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the
preposition). This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying
role, acting as an adjective or an adverb, locating something in
time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or where or
under what conditions something happened.

Consider the professor's desk and all the prepositional
phrases we can use while talking about it.

You can sit before the desk (or in front of the
desk). The professor can sit on the desk (when he's being
informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are
under the desk or beneath the desk. He can stand
beside the desk (meaning next to the desk),
before the desk, between the desk and you, or even
on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's clumsy, he
can bump into the desk or try to walk through the
desk (and stuff would fall off the desk). Passing his
hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the
desk, he often looks across the desk and speaks of
the desk or concerning the desk as if there were nothing
else like the desk. Because he thinks of nothing
except the desk, sometimes you wonder about the
desk, what's in the desk, what he paid for the
desk, and if he could live without the desk. You can walk
toward the desk, to the desk, around the
desk, by the desk, and even past the desk while he
sits at the desk or leans against the desk.All of
this happens, of course, in time: during the class,
before the class, until the class,
throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the
professor can sit there in a bad mood [another adverbial
construction].

Those words in bold blue font are all prepositions.
Some prepositions do other things besides locate in space or time
— "My brother is like my father." "Everyone in the
class except me got the answer." — but nearly all
of them modify in one way or another. It is possible for a
preposition phrase to act as a noun — "During a church
service is not a good time to discuss picnic plans" or "In the
South Pacific is where I long to be" — but this is seldom
appropriate in formal or academic writing

Is it any wonder that prepositions create such troubles for
students for whom English is a second language? We say we are
at the hospital to visit a friend who is in the
hospital. We lie in bed but on the couch. We
watch a film at the theater but on television.
For native speakers, these little words present little
difficulty, but try to learn another language, any other
language, and you will quickly discover that prepositions are
troublesome wherever you live and learn. This page contains some
interesting (sometimes troublesome) prepositions with brief usage
notes. To address all the potential difficulties with
prepositions in idiomatic usage would require volumes, and the
only way English language learners can begin to master the
intricacies of preposition usage is through practice and paying
close attention to speech and the written word. Keeping a good
dictionary close at hand (to hand?) is an important
first step.

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME: AT, ON, AND IN

We use at to designate specific
times./The train is due at 12:15 p.m.

We use on to designate days and
dates./My brother is coming on Monday./We're having a party on
the Fourth of July.

We use in for nonspecific times during a
day, a month, a season, or a year./She likes to jog in the
morning./It's too cold in winter to run outside./He started the
job in 1971./He's going to quit in August.

PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE: AT, ON, AND IN

We use at for specific
addresses./Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.

We use on to designate names of streets,
avenues, etc./Her house is on Boretz Road.

And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns,
counties, states, countries, and continents)

• .She lives in Durham.

• Durham is in Windham County.

• Windham County is in Connecticut.

PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT: TO AND NO
PREPOSITION

We use to in order to express movement
toward a place./They were driving to work together./She's going
to the dentist's office this
morning.

Toward and towards are also
helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply
variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better
to you./We're moving toward the light./This is a big step towards
the project's completion.

With the words home, downtown, uptown,
inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no
preposition./Grandma went upstairs/Grandpa went home./They both
went outside.

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME: FOR AND SINCE

We use for when we measure time
(seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years)./He held his
breath for seven minutes./She's lived there for seven years./The
British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.

We use since with a specific date or
time./He's worked here since 1970./She's been sitting in the
waiting room since two-thirty.

PREPOSITIONS WITH NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, AND
VERBS.

Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words
that they have practically become one word. (In fact, in other
languages, such as German, they would have become one word.) This
occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal
verb. The word that is joined to the verb is then called a
particle. Please refer to the brief section we have
prepared on phrasal verbs for an explanation.

UNNECESSARY PREPOSITIONS

In everyday speech, we fall into some bad habits, using
prepositions where they are not necessary. It would be a good
idea to eliminate these words altogether, but we must be
especially careful not to use them in formal, academic prose.

• She met up with the new coach in the hallway.

• The book fell off of the desk.

• He threw the book out of the window.

• She wouldn't let the cat inside of the house. [or use
  "in"]

• Where did they go to?

• Put the lamp in back of the couch. [use "behind"
  instead]

• Where is your college at?

PREPOSITIONS IN PARALLEL FORM

When two words or phrases are used in parallel
and require the same preposition to be idiomatically correct, the
preposition does not have to be used twice./You can wear that
outfit in summer and in winter./The female was both
attracted by and distracted by the male's dance.

However, when the idiomatic use of phrases calls
for different prepositions, we must be careful not to omit one of
them./The children were interested in and disgusted
by the movie./It was clear that this player could both
contribute to and learn from every game he
played./He was fascinated by and enamored of
this beguiling woman.

Introducing your
self

A simple way of starting a conversation is to introduce
yourself. This may seem simple, but it is also an opportunity to
intrigue the other person and get the conversation going.

Simple topics include your name, occupation, family and
hobbies. More adventurous topics include some of the things you
have done which are brave, daft or interesting.

A powerful approach, particularly in sales, is to include a
description of what you can do for the other person.

Talking about yourself can be used to show your status and
superiority, thus taking control of the
conversation.

It can also be used to show that you are friendly and
harmless. It helps you position yourself relative to the other
person and also within their frames of reference; for example:
Hello. I'm Jeff leaver, your union representative, I can help
you with any, employment issues you have.

• Names:

• First Name:

A word or a combination of words by which a person, place, or
thing, a body or class, or any object of thought is designated,
called, or known.

Name offers world class domain name registration which
includes industry leading customer service and tools. Our primary
focus is to work in partnership with our customers to make
registering and managing domain names easy.Picking the right name
is one of the most important things an organization can do.

Example:

MIDDLE NAME

Is a name between your first name and your surname, middle
names are often chosen by parents at the same time as the first
name. Names that are popular as first names are also popular as
middle names. However, some parents may use the middle spot to
honor a relative or to use an unusual name that might have been a
social burden to the child as a first name. Surnames are also
sometimes given as middle names, usually to honor a relative. It
is quite popular to use the mother"s name as the middle name. (A
name that occurs between a person's first name and surname).Most
of the time the middle name is given after a relative, like the
mother, father, aunt, etc.

Example:

LAST NAMES

A family name or last name is a type of surname and part of a
person's name indicating the family to which the person belongs,
(this name used to identify the members of a family)

A family name or last name is a type of surname and part of a
person's name indicating the family to which the person belongs.
The use of family names is widespread in cultures around the
world. Each culture has its own rules as to how these names are
applied and used.

Have you ever wondered about the meaning of your last name or
where your family came from? What your ancestors did how they
looked or where they lived? Surnames — our last names.

Example

FAMILY

Families is a primary social group, a small community, in any
society, typically consisting of a man and a woman, or any two
individuals who wish to share their lives together in a long-term
committed relationship with one another, raising offspring and
usually reside in the same dwelling.

The collective body of persons who live in one house, and
under one head or manager; a household, including parents,
children.

Family is the main building block of a community; family
structure and upbringing determines the social character and
personality of any given society. – Family is where we all learn:
love, caring, compassion, ethics, honesty, fairness, common
sense, reason, peaceful conflict resolution and respect for
ourselves and others, which are the vital fundamental skills, and
family values, necessary to live an honorable and prospers life
in harmony, in the world community.

DEFINITION OF FAMILY VALUES

To have a sense of Family Values is to have good thoughts,
good intentions and good deeds, to love and to care for those
whom we are close to and are part of our primary social group,
our community, such as children, parents, other family members
and friends. And to treat others with the same set of values, the
same way we wish to be treated.

Family Values is to be a kind, caring, honorable, neighborly,
generous, compassionate, fair, and a peace-loving people.

AGE

The time that a person or a thing has existed since birth or
beginning or the length of time that one has existed; duration of
life. The time of life when a person becomes qualified to assume
certain civil and personal rights
and responsibilities, usually at 18 or 21 years.

example:

WEIGHT

A portion or quantity weighing a definite or specified amount
ten pounds weight of load. Quantity of matter as estimated by the
balance, or expressed numerically with reference to some standard
unit; as, a mass of stone having the weight of five hundred
pounds. For example my weight is 65 KL

HEIGHT

The condition of being high; elevated position. The distance
to which anything rises above its foot, above that on which in
stands, above the earth, or above the level of the sea; altitude;
the measure upward from a surface, as the floor or the ground, of
animal, humans or structure.

Identifications
card

One identity document (also called a piece of
identification or ID) is any document which may be
used to verify aspects of a person's identity  if issued in
the form of a small, mostly standard-sized card, it is usually
called an identity card (IC). In some countries the
possession of a government-produced identity card is compulsory
while in others it may be voluntary. In countries which do not
have formal identity documents, informal ones may in some
circumstances be required.

 A national identity card is a portable document,
typically a plasticized card with digitally-embedded information,
that someone is required or encouraged to carry as a means of
confirming their identity.

In the absence of a formal identity document, some countries
accept driving licenses as the most effective method of proof of
identity. Most countries accept passports as a form of
identification; for example: What is your identification card No?
My identification card No is 23249224

PASSPORT CARD:

Also called Travel document is used by a competent authority
showing the bearer"s origin, identity, and nationality if any,
which is Permission to pass; a document given by the competent
officer of a state, permitting the person therein named to pass
or travel from place to place, without molestation, by land or by
water.

It is a document that we Usually use to go to a next country
so they can identify our nationality,

NATIONALITY:

People having common origins or traditions and often
comprising a nation; "immigrants of the same nationality often
seek each other out"; "such, the status of belonging to a
particular nation by birth or naturalization, the status of
belonging to a particular nation by origin, birth, or
naturalization. A people having common origins or traditions and
often constituting a nation; for example: what is your
nationality? My nationality is Colombia.

ADDRESS

to direct (spoken or written words) to someone, is to
speak to or write to (to address an
audience) sometimes used reflexively he addressed
himself to both of us, to write the destination on (a letter or
parcel) , to use a proper form in speaking to address the judge
as "Your Honor", to apply (oneself) or direct (one's energies),
to deal or cope with; handle (problems, issues, etc.)

A formal communication, either written or spoken
a discourse, a speech, a formal application to any one, a
petition, a formal statement on some subject or special occasion,
as, an address of thanks, an address to the voters, the place to
which mail, etc. can be sent to someone; place where someone
lives or works what is writing on an envelope, parcel, etc.
showing its destination, direction or superscription of a letter,
or the name, title, and place of residence of the person
addressed; for example:

PHONE NUMBER

The numerical code that is used in calling a particular
telephone.

A telephone number or phone number is a sequence of numbers
used to call from one telephone line to another in a telephone
network; for example: my phone number is 617-635-5300 or
617-343-4425

We usually have and note book or a appointment book were we
note down the phone numbers that we call

LIKE AND DISLIKES

LIKE:

Is to have an inclination or a preference, to find pleasant or
attractive; enjoy and to want to have; for example: I would
like some coffee.

Having the same, or nearly the same, appearance, qualities, or
characteristics; resembling; similar to; similar; alike; often
with in and the particulars of the resemblance; as, they are like
each other in features, complexion, and many traits of
character.

DISLIKE

This consider in tree factor

• NOT LIKE SOMEBODY OR SOMETHING: 

to consider something or somebody disagreeable or
unpleasant

• DISFAVOR:

an inclination to withhold approval from some person or
group

• DISAPPROVING FEELING: 

an attitude or feeling of disapproval or lack of enjoyment

• SOMETHING NOT LIKED:

something that is considered disagreeable

Example:

Empresa

CONCEPTO:

La empresa se
entiende por una actividad organizada, la cual busca la
administración o distribución de cualquier bien o
prestación de servicios para
la comunidad,
está organizada por un administrador que
toma las decisiones oportunas para poder alcanzar
unos objetivos ya
planteados.

Las empresas se
pueden clasificar de la siguiente manera:

• Sectores Económicos

• El origen de su capital.

• Su Tamaño

• Conformación de su capital

• El pago de impuestos

• El número de propietarios

• La función social

• La forma de explotación

POR SECTORES ECONOMICOS

• EXTRACTIVAS:

Dedicadas a explotar recursos
naturales.Ejemplo: Cerrejón, ECOPETROL, Minas de
Oro del
Chocó.

• SERVICIOS:

Entregarle sus servicios o la prestación de estos a la
comunidad. Ejemplo: Clínicas, salones de belleza,
transportes.

• COMERCIAL

Desarrolla la venta de los
productos
terminados en la fábrica. Ejemplo: Cadenas de almacenes
Ley, La 14,
Carrefour etc.

• AGROPECUARIA:

Explotación del campo y sus recursosEjemplo: Hacienda,
agroindustria.

• INDUSTRIAL:

Transforma la materia prima
en un producto
terminado.Ejemplo: Acerías Paz del Río, Ingenio
Risaralda.

POR SU TAMAÑO

• GRANDE:

Su constitución se soporta en grandes
cantidades de capital, un
gran número de trabajadores y volumen de
ingreso al año, su número de trabajadores excede a
100 personas. Ejemplo: Comestibles La Rosa, Postobón, Gino
Pascalli, etc.).

• MEDIANA:

Su capital, el número de trabajadores y el volumen de
ingresos son
limitados y muy regulares, número de trabajadores superior
a 20 personas e inferior a 100.

• PEQUEÑAS:

Se dividen a su vez en.

• PEQUEÑA:

Su capital, número de trabajadores y sus ingresos son
muy reducidos, el número de trabajadores no excede de 20
personas.

• MICRO:

Su capital, número de trabajadores y sus ingresos solo
se establecen en cuantías muy personales, el número
de trabajadores no excede de 10 (trabajadores y empleados).

• FAMIEMPRESA:

Es un nuevo tipo de explotación en donde de la familia es
el motor del negocio
convirtiéndose en una unidad productiva.

POR EL ORIGEN DEL CAPITAL

• PÚBLICO:

Su capital proviene del Estado o
Gobierno.
Ejemplo: Alcaldía de Pereira, Gobernación de
Risaralda.

• PRIVADO:

Son aquellas en que el capital proviene de particulares.
Ejemplo: Sociedades
comerciales.

• ECONOMÍA MIXTA:

El capital proviene una parte del estado y la otra de
particulares. Ejemplo: Bancafé, La Previsora S.A.

POR LA EXPLOTACIÓN Y CONFORMACIÓN DE SU
CAPITAL.

• MULTINACIONALES:

En su gran mayoría el capital es extranjero y explotan
las actividad en diferentes países del mundo (globalización). Ejemplo: Nicole.

• GRUPOS ECONÓMICOS:

Estas empresas explotan uno o varios sectores pero pertenecen
al mismo grupo de
personas o dueños. Ejemplo: Alejandro Echavarria, Manuel
Mejia Jaramillo, Carlos Ardilla Lulle, Manuel Carvajal
Sinisterra, Jimmy Mayer, Eduardo Santos, Hernando Caicedo
Caicedo, Fernando Mazuera, Julio Mario Santo Domingo y Luis
Carlos Sarmiento Angulo.

• NACIONALES:

El radio de atención es dentro del país
normalmente tienen su principal en una ciudad y sucursales en
otras.

• LOCALES:

Son aquellas en que su radio de atención es dentro de
la misma localidad.

POR EL PAGO DE IMPUESTOS

• PERSONAS NATURALES:

El empresario
como Persona Natural
es aquel individuo que
profesionalmente se ocupa de algunas de las actividades
mercantiles, la Persona Natural se inscribe en la Cámara de
Comercio, igualmente se debe hacer con la Matrícula
del Establecimiento Comercial.

Están obligados a pagar impuestos, su
declaración de renta aquí le corresponde a
trabajadores profesionales independientes y algunos que ejercen
el comercio.

Los libros que se
deben inscribir ante Cámara y Comercio son: Libro de
Registro de
Operaciones
Diarias, Libro de Inventario y de
Balances y Libro Mayor y de Balances.

• SUCESIONES ILÍQUIDAS:

En este grupo corresponde a las herencias o legados que se
encuentran en proceso de
liquidación.

• RÉGIMEN SIMPLIFICADO:

Pertenecen los comerciantes que no llenan
requisitos que Exige la DIAN. Ejemplo: Las pequeñas
tiendas, no están obligados a llevar contabilidad.

• RÉGIMEN COMÚN:

Empresas legalmente constituidas y sobrepasan las limitaciones
del régimen simplificado, deben llevar organizadamente su
contabilidad.

• GRAN CONTRIBUYENTE:

Agrupa el mayor número de empresas con capitales e
ingresos compuestos en cuantías superiores a los miles de
millones de pesos. Son las más grandes del
país.

POR EL NÚMERO DE PROPIETARIOS

• INDIVIDUALES:

Su dueño es la empresa, por
lo general es él solo quien tiene el peso del
negocio.UNIPERSONALES:

Se conforma con la presencia de una sola Persona Natural o
Jurídica, que destina parte de sus activos para la
realización de una o varias actividades mercantiles.

Su nombre debe ser una denominación o
razón social, seguida de la expresión "Empresa
Unipersonal" o de la sigla "E.U", si no se usa la
expresión o su sigla, el contribuyente responde con todos
sus bienes aunque
no estén vinculados a la citada empresa. SOCIEDADES:

Todas para su constitución exigen la
participación como dueño de más de una
persona lo que indica que mínimo son dos (2) por lo
general corresponden al régimen común.

POR LA FUNCIÓN SOCIAL

• CON ÁNIMO DE LUCRO:

Se constituye la empresa con el propósito de explotar y
ganar más dinero.

• TRABAJO ASOCIADO:

Grupo organizado como empresa para beneficio de los
integrantes E.A.T.

• SIN ÁNIMO DE LUCRO:

el objeto de estas empresas se fundamenta en al
prestación de un servicio como
lo es la salud y
la
educación.

• ECONOMÍA SOLIDARIA:

En este grupo pertenecen todas las cooperativas
sin importar a que actividad se dedican lo más importante
es el bienestar de los asociados y su familia.

• SEGÚN FORMA JURÍDICA:

Estas empresas están reguladas por la
legislación del país, pueden ser: Unipersonal,
sociedad
colectiva, cooperativas, comanditarias, sociedades
anónimas, sociedades limitadas

• SOCIEDADES DE HECHO:

Están pretende conseguir un fin especifico por cierto
tiempo:
Uniones temporales, Patrimonio
autónomo, Cuentas en
participación, Consorcios

• SEGÚN SECTOR COOPERATIVO:

Estas prestan un servicio para la comunidad, pueden ser: Cajas
de compensación familiar, Fundaciones beneficiarias,
Sindicatos,
Fondos de empleados, Fondos de inversión

Actividad
económica

Conjunto de acciones que
tienen por objeto la producción, distribución y consumo de
bienes y servicios generados para satisfacer las necesidades
materiales y
sociales. Dentro de ella se pueden distinguir tres fases
principales:

• La producción de bienes y servicios.

• La distribución, que acerca esos productos al
  posible comprador.

• El consumo, es decir, la compra de esos bienes y
  servicios

Los países se emplean específicamente en alguna
actividad económica lo que permite clasificarlos, y de
acuerdo a la capacidad de producción y eficiencia de
dicha actividad se generara su riqueza, así que se puede
decir que Las actividades económicas se dividen en tres
sectores:

ACTIVIDADES ECONÓMICAS PRIMARIAS

Son aquellas que se dedican puramente a la extracción
de los recursos
naturales, ya sea para el consumo o para la comercialización.

Están clasificadas como primarias : la agricultura,
la ganadería,
la producción de madera y
peces, la
minería,
etc. agropecuarias: tierras bajas, altiplanicies, oasis de riego
y plantaciones modernas. No agropecuarias: explotación
forestal, minería y pesca

ACTIVIDADES ECONÓMICAS SECUNDARIAS

Este sector se refiere a las actividades industriales,
aquellas que transforman los recursos del sector primario.

Dentro del mismo, las industrias
ligeras producen bienes de consumo inmediato como alimentos,
zapatos, bolsas, juguetes, las
pesadas maquinaria y otros insumos para otros sectores. las
manufactureras se encargan de la elaboración de productos
más complejos a través de la transformación
de las materias primas.

Son las que transforman las materias primas en productos
elaborados, muchas de ellas se llevan a cabo en industrias como
por ejemplo para fabricar zapatos.

ACTIVIDADES ECONÓMICAS TERCIARIAS

Estas actividades son las que más producen la comodidad
y la satisfacción de una necesidad humana. Su trabajo es la
prestación de algún servicio, la
comunicación o el turismo. Se encuentran
comerciantes, maestros, médicos, banqueros,
ferrocarrileros, restauranteros y demás en esta rama.

ESTRUCTURA ORGANICO –
FUNCIONAL

Toda empresa cuenta en forma implícita o
explícita con cierto juego de
jerarquías y atribuciones asignadas a los miembros o
componentes de la misma. En consecuencia se puede establecer que
la estructura
organizativa de una empresa es el
esquema de jerarquización y división de las
funciones
componentes de ella. Jerarquizar es establecer líneas de
autoridad (de
arriba hacia abajo) a través de los diversos niveles y
delimitar la responsabilidad de cada empleado ante solo un
superviso inmediato. Esto permite ubicar a las unidades
administrativas en relación con las que le son
subordinadas en el proceso de la autoridad. El valor de una
jerarquía bien definida consiste en que reduce la
confusión respecto a quien da las órdenes y quien
las obedece. Define como se dividen, agrupan y coordinan
formalmente las tareas en los puestos.

Toda organización cuenta con una estructura, la
cual puede ser formal o informal. La formal es la estructura
explicita y oficialmente reconocida por la empresa. La estructura
informal es la resultante de la filosofía de la conducción y el
poder relativo de los individuos que componen la
organización, no en función de
su ubicación en la estructura formal, sino en
función de influencia sobre otros miembros.

UNA ESTRUCTURA
ORGANIZACIONAL – FUNCIONAL DEBE ESTAR FORMADA DE LA
SIGUENTE MANERA:

• Especialización del Trabajo.

• Departamentalización.

• Cadena de mando.

• Extensión del Tramo de Control.

• Centralización y Descentralización.

• Formalización.

• ESPECIALIZACIÓN DEL TRABAJO O DIVISIÓN DE LA
  MANO DE OBRA

Se sustenta en el hecho de que en lugar de que un individuo
realice todo el trabajo,
este se divide en cierto número de pasos y cada individuo
termina uno de los pasos.

• DEPARTAMENTALIZACIÓN:

Una vez divididos los puestos por medio de la
especialización del trabajo, se necesita agruparlos a fin
de que se puedan coordinar las tareas comunes. La Departamentalización es el proceso que
consiste en agrupar tareas o funciones en conjuntos
especializados en el cumplimiento de cierto tipo de actividades.
Generalmente adopta la forma de gerencias, departamentos,
secciones.

La calidad de una
estructura organizativa depende mucho de la calidad de la
Departamentalización y de la consecuente delegación
de funciones y autoridad para el desarrollo
eficiente de las mismas. La Departamentalización implica
el riesgo de tener
que lograr la coordinación entre las unidades
definidas.

Existen dos modelos de
Departamentalización: por Procesos y por
Objetivos.

DEPARTAMENTALIZACIÓN POR PROCESOS

Se agrupan las actividades por procesos o actividades,
maximizando el aspecto especialización, es frecuente en el
área de fabricación donde separan el trabajo en
varios procesos.

DEPARTAMENTALIZACIÓN POR OBJETIVOS

Se divide cada sector en subsectores que cuentan con iguales
objetivos que la unidad superior a la cual reportan, con lo cual
se optimiza la coordinación. Existen varias variantes las
cuales se clasifican en función del concepto
agrupador de funciones en sectores, entre las cuales podemos
nombrar:

• DEPARTAMENTALIZACIÓN POR PRODUCTOS:

Es usada por empresas que fabrican muchos productos o
productos muy diferentes.

• DEPARTAMENTALIZACIÓN POR ZONA
  GEOGRÁFICA:

Suele ser para el marketing. Es
más bien geográfica ya que la
Departamentalización se efectúa por territorios o
regiones de acción.

LA CADENA DE MANDO:

Es una línea continua de autoridad que se extiende
desde la cima de la organización hasta el escalón
más bajo y define quien informa a quien. Contesta
preguntas de los empleados como: -¿A quien acudo si tengo
un problema? Y ¿Ante quien soy responsable? En la cadena
de mando tenemos presente dos importantes conceptos: Autoridad y
Unidad de Mando. La autoridad se refiere al derecho inherente de
una posición administrativa para dar órdenes y
esperar que se cumplan y la Unidad de Mando ayuda a preservar el
concepto de una línea ininterrumpida de autoridad, si se
rompe la unidad de mando un subordinado podría tener que
atender a demandas o prioridades conflictivas de varios
superiores.

TRAMO DE CONTROL:

Determina en gran parte el número de niveles y
administradores que tiene una organización.

CENTRALIZACIÓN Y DESCENTRALIZACIÓN:

La centralización se refiere al grado hasta el
cual la toma de
decisiones se concentra en un solo punto de la
organización, la Descentralización se da cuando hay aportes
de personal de nivel inferior o se le da realmente la oportunidad
de ejercer su discrecionalidad en la toma de decisiones, en una
organización descentralizada se pueden tomar acciones con
mayor rapidez para resolver problemas, mas
personas contribuyen con información.