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A menudo las personas olvidan que lo que hacen es un medio de
comunicación en la medida en que otros lo
interpretan (consciente o inconscientemente).

Los directivos inteligentes estudian a conciencia
aquellos con quienes tratan para familiarizarse con sus posturas,
movimientos y gestos e intentar así determinar su
significado.

Sabemos que el lenguaje
corpóreo no es un reflejo perfecto de los pensamientos,
actitudes y
emociones; sin
embargo, se pueden obtener importantes pistas.

Normalmente se descuidan dos puntos importantes referentes a
la acción.

• NO ACTUAR

Es una forma importante de comunicación. El gerente que no
elogia al empleado por un trabajo bien
hecho o que no proporciona los recursos
prometidos está enviándole un mensaje. Puesto que
enviamos mensajes mediante la acción o la falta de
acción, en el trabajo nos
comunicamos casi en todo momento sin importar nuestras
intenciones.

• 2. A LA LARGA, LA ACCIÓN ES MÁS ELOCUENTE
  QUE LAS PALABRAS.

Los gerentes y directores que dicen una cosa pero hacen otra
muy pronto se darán cuenta de que sus subordinados
"escuchan" sobre todo lo que hacen. Cuando hay discrepancias
entre lo que alguien dice y lo que hace, a eso se llama brecha
de credibilidad de comunicación.

Una parte importante de la comunicación no
verbal, es el lenguaje corporal por medio del cual nos
comunicamos con otros mediante el cuerpo en una interacción personal.

La cara y las manos son fuentes
especialmente importantes del lenguaje
corporal en las situaciones laborales. Ejemplo de ello son el
contacto ocular, el movimiento de
los ojos, las sonrisas y los ceños, el contacto
físico y el fruncir la ceja.

Otros tipos de lenguaje corporal son la cercanía, el
movimiento de caderas y la frecuencia de la respiración.

En cierta ocasión un administrador
frunció la ceja cuando un empleado le hizo una sugerencia
y éste interpretó el gesto como un rechazo, cuando
en realidad el administrador tenía un dolor de
cabeza.  En otra ocasión, una sonrisa en un momento
inoportuno fue interpretada como un ademán despectivo y se
produjo una discusión.

COGNICIÓN SOCIAL

Cuando algún desconocido se acerca a nosotros, ocurren
los siguientes procesos y
fenómenos que constituyen el área de estudio de la
cognición social:

• Nuestra reacción ante quien se acerca
  dependerá del reconocimiento de emociones que
  realicemos; es decir, del diagnóstico acerca de su
  estado de ánimo. Este diagnóstico se elabora a
  partir de la observación de su rostro y de otras
  señales no verbales.

• De manera inevitable, nos formamos una
  impresión sobre ella, una imagen relativamente
  coherente, para la cual uniremos diversos elementos
  informativos que hemos podido ir recogiendo en esos primeros
  instantes de interacción: su aspectos físico,
  vestimenta, forma de hablar, atractivo, etc.

• Realizaremos atribuciones causales, esto es,
  buscaremos una causa para explicar la conducta de dicha
  persona. Nuestros sentimientos, pensamientos y conductas
  respecto a tal persona estarán mediatizados por el
  tipo de causa a que atribuyamos su conducta.

• Utilizaremos esquemas (conjuntos organizados de
  conocimientos) que nos ayudarán a procesar
  rápidamente la información que vamos recibiendo
  y a tomar una decisión los más adecuada
  posible.

• Nuestra reacción estará mediatizada por los
  procesos de inferencia social, es decir, por la forma
  según la cual procesamos la información que
  estamos recibiendo, la almacenamos en nuestra memoria, la
  ponemos en relación con otra información de la
  que ya disponíamos, la recuperamos y la aplicamos al
  caso en cuestión.

De todas y cada una de estas partes depende nuestro éxito o
fracaso al comunicarnos. Nuestro interlocutor va contrastando sus
expectativas, nuestro despliegue informativo y el contexto
concreto.

LA PRIMERA IMPRESIÓN

"Nunca se tiene una segunda oportunidad de dar una
primera impresión"

Como ya hemos dicho anteriormente, es imposible no
comunicarse. La primera impresión es un proceso de
percepción de una persona por otra
que transcurre en muy poco tiempo.
Habitualmente no somos del todo conscientes ni de la
emisión ni de la recepción de las informaciones que
la configuran.

El tiempo en que fragua la primera impresión
varía entre dos y cuatro minutos en el encuentro cara a
cara, y escasos segundos en el telefónico. Abarca tres
campos, con muy distinto peso en el conjunto final de la
impresión:

A estos hay que añadir un cuarto: Cómo escucho,
que completa el círculo de la
comunicación.

Esos tres campos, tres canales, se perciben y analizan de un
modo sucesivo, y el conjunto ha de ser coherente en su mensaje.
La incoherencia entre canales causa distorsión o ruptura
de la comunicación. Por el contrario, la armonía
concentra la atención hacia las palabras y da confianza.
Cuanta más congruencia haya entre lo que decimos y la
forma en que lo decimos, más favorable será la
primera impresión que causemos.

CUANTO MÁS SEPAMOS DE:

• NOSOTROS,

Mayores serán nuestras probabilidades de transmitir de
forma unívoca nuestra imagen.

• LOS DEMÁS,

Con más exactitud podremos predecir las expectativas
que ellos tienen respecto de nosotros, y mejor podremos conformar
nuestras expresiones para que nos comprendan.

COMPONENTES DE LA PRIMERA IMPRESIÓN

• QUÉ ASPECTO TENGO (lo que ven, comunicación
  visual)

• Color de la piel, estrato social.

• Sexo

• Edad

• Apariencia (biotipo, postura, pelo, vestido, accesorios,
  olores, colores)

• Expresiones faciales

• Contacto ocular

• Movimientos

• Espacio personal (corpulencia, altura, peso; posturas;
  distancias; objetos)

• Tacto (piel, tejidos, posibles contactos)

• CÓMO HABLO

La voz. En el caso del contacto telefónico se convierte
en casi única fuente de información, con la que tratarán de
cubrir las lagunas que aportaría lo visual, la
teórica primera fase.

• Rapidez

• Volumen. Tono o Altura.

• Calidad o Timbre

• Articulación o dicción

• QUÉ DIGO

• Las palabras. Cómo enfoco los asuntos. Qué
  pienso y cómo lo expongo.

• Lo negativo: términos de relleno,
  expresiones restrictivas, términos exclusivos

• Lo positivo: estilo directo y afirmativo; no
  restrictivo, salvo que lo entendamos idóneo; sin
  disculpas ni evasivas; más simple en su sintaxis que
  por escrito, organizado; coloquial, conciso, animado; breve y
  puntual; incluso "participativo".

• CÓMO ESCUCHO

• No interrumpir (si nos interrumpen debemos hacernos
  respetar)

• Dar señal de retorno, oímos y entendemos su
  mensaje

• Utilizar los términos del interlocutor.
  Responderle.

• Demostrar interés pidiendo aclaración a lo
  que oímos.

Como síntesis,
nos interesa conocer los mecanismos de la primera
impresión para utilizar eficazmente esa fuente de
información. Saber todo lo que estamos "diciendo" a los
demás, para que actúe en nuestro favor. Y conocer
qué impactos recibimos, por qué reaccionamos de una
manera determinada.

Todo ello sin forzar la realidad propia o ajena, con
naturalidad expresiva y receptiva. Las "interpretaciones", en los
dos sentidos de la palabra, sólo son buenas para los
actores y para los obligados a juzgar.

• LA NATURALIDAD

¿Posturas aprendidas o naturalidad? El desenfado y la
informalidad. ¿Cómo llegar a la corrección
natural?

Conocer el significado de los gestos nunca nos hará
daño.
Existe un lenguaje natural de hondas raíces
antropológicas, con el que hablamos constantemente, aunque
no esté controlado en el plano consciente.

Si la vista ha robado agudeza a los demás sentidos,
sólo desarrollados en los que carecen de visión, en
el terreno de la comunicación la palabra acorta la plena
conciencia de otros códigos. Pero, aun de forma menos
consciente, seguimos influyendo y afectándonos por el
lenguaje de los gestos.

Toda actitud que
pueda signifcar ataque o defensa debe desaparecer entre los que
hablan y escuchan. El miedo impide la comunicación.

• HABLAR DE PIE. LA VERTICALIDAD

Somos bípedos pero de un solo punto de apoyo. El otro
sirve para guardar el equilibrio,
para girar rápidos, para caminar. Nos sentimos tan a
gusto, tan seguros sobre un
pie, que exagerar la postura (arqueando el otro) resulta
desafiante, petulante, "mal educado".

El eje único nos permite girar el tronco a unos y
otros, inclinarnos levemente, cimbrearnos. Los brazos se mueven
con soltura. Estar de pie supone una actitud de servicio, de
disponibilidad propia del dinamismo del líder.
El mantenerse agarrado a la mesa, al bolígrafo, al atril o
al pie del micrófono denota necesidad de
protección.

No es bueno ofrecer el perfil o la espalda mientras se habla.
Dirigirse a nuestros interlocutores supone mirarles y dejarse
mirar de frente. Girar hacia unos y otros, con suavidad, es
normal. Estar torcidos, mirar de lado, se interpreta como rigidez
timorata, reserva o amenaza.

El profesor o
presentador que avanza en la sala para estar próximo a los
más lejanos, termina dándoles la espalda a los de
las primeras filas. Cambiar de posición en la clase, en
puntos hacia los que todos puedan volverse, es un medio de
equidistar de todos. Pero convendrá no dar continuos
paseos que causan mareos o incomunicación.

El sentimiento de dominancia-dependencia está muy
relacionado con la posición arriba-abajo. El que habla de
pie asume cierto liderazgo. Su
relación con los que escuchan sentados tiene otras
connotaciones. La postura sedente se considera una
ocupación más estabilizada del lugar: ellos son los
señores y el que está de pie les sirve.

Para hablar en una sala grande a mucha gente se hace preciso
hablar de pie. Te ven mejor, tienes una mayor amplitud expresiva
y la respiración diafragmática se hace plena.
Obsérvese que en el cine el
encuadre más comunicativo es el de 3/4 o plano
americano.

Las piernas no deben separarse mucho. Evitemos dar pasitos
adelante y atrás (efecto de cierto nerviosismo) o el
balanceo continuo que produce apoyarse alternativamente en una y
otra pierna.

Cuando se habla desde un plano más elevado, se
evitará levantar la barbilla. Es preferible una
pequeña inclinación hacia adelante para que los
rostros queden en paralelo.

• HABLAR SENTADO. LAS MESAS

La mesa redonda,
asientos de la misma altura, refuerza el sentido de igualdad. La
falta de estrados en la sala de conferencias o el aula imprime un
aire
democrático y participativo.

Cuando hablamos en una reunión de trabajo de pocos
asistentes parece obligado sentarse con ellos en un mismo plano.
Hay que justificar el estar de pie por escribir en la pizarra o
algo parecido.

Las mesas representan un obstáculo para la
comunicación en cuanto son barrera y defensa para todos.
Estar sentados en corro, sin mesas, produce un grato ambiente de
amistad. Sin
embargo, se hacen muchas veces necesarias para examinar papeles y
tomar notas.

La mesa de una reunión de trabajo y la mesa del
presentador deberán ser más bajas que las de
despacho (o las sillas más altas). De esta manera dejan
ver algo más que bustos parlantes. Los hombros y brazos
pueden bajar, relajarse, sin que las manos desaparezcan bajo la
mesa.

Al presentador, cuando pone y señala transparencias en
el retroproyector, se le recomienda que esté sentado, de
cara al grupo.
Necesitará una mesa baja.

Cuando nos sentamos sobre la columna seguimos verticales,
humanos y seguros. Damos la impresión de estar vivos,
descansados, lúcidos, dispuestos a atender y trabajar.
Recomendamos comenzar en posición cómoda (llenar el
asiento) pero no Echados sobre la mesa ni sobre el respaldo: bien
sentados en el asiento.

SISTEMAS DE COMUNICACIÓN NO VERBAL.

• EL LENGUAJE ANIMAL.

Los animales se
comunican mediante gruñidos, gritos, cantos, movimientos,
colores,
olores.

• COMUNICACIÓN VISUAL.

Son los mensajes que percibimos por la vista:
semáforos, señales
de tráfico, un faro.

El lenguaje gestual que utilizamos al hablar
pertenece a este tipo y es muy importante.

• COMUNICACIÓN AUDITIVA.

Muchos gritos significan alegría, dolor,
llamada… Las campanas, los timbres, el despertador pertenecen a
este tipo de comunicación.

• OTRAS FORMAS DE COMUNICACIÓN NO VERBAL.

• Comunicación táctil
  (tacto).

• Abrazos, besos, apretón de manos.

• Comunicación gustativa.

• Sabores de las comidas.

• Comunicación olfativa.

• Olor de la madre para el bebé, el
  perfume, el olor de la comida.

Normas de
convivencia

Las normas de
convivencia contribuyen al buen funcionamiento de las relaciones
sociales y al bienestar común. Para introducir las normas
en el funcionamiento del colegio es preciso que éstas sean
asumidas, en primer lugar por los adultos (profesoras y padres) y
estimular al niño a través de la labor diaria en un
clima
cálido, afectuoso y transmisor de seguridad
emocional, para que llegue a la comprensión de que las
normas son un bien común. De esta manera adquiere un alto
valor
educativo. El niño necesita saberse protegido por unos
acuerdos que todos van a cumplir y al tiempo necesita saber con
claridad hasta dónde puede llegar su libertad.

Es una pauta de convivencia; para que la sociedad pueda
existir y sus integrantes puedan interactuar en armonía y
tranquilidad. Hay normas complejas y con sanciones (transito), y
otras más simples.

• Características Son aprendibles y
  mutables, casi de forma inconsciente, observando a nuestro
  alrededor se asimilan. (obvio)

• Se cambian y transforman según el
  tiempo y la situación que se vive.

• Pueden estar por escrito o de forma
  consuetudinaria, leyes y reglamentos, con mayor peso; y las
  habladas son aprox. 60%.

• Deben ser válidas. Se debe creer en
  quién la hizo, así tiene validez.

• Deben ser eficaz respondiendo a las
  necesidades reales de las personas.

• Pueden ser obligatorias y coercitivas, porque
  admiten sanciones y fuerza.

• Sistemas Normativos a).- Normas Sociales:
  costumbres y tradiciones de una comunidad, lo cotidiano, su
  modo de vida. b).- Normas Religiosas: regulan el actuar y
  orientan la conciencia, buscan la santidad y
  salvación. Constituyen el nivel inicial de
  religiosidad. c).- Normas Morales: exigen a la persona
  conductas que reflejan la vivencia de valores, proponiendo
  ideales de vida buena. Pautas que nos orientan a actuar
  según ciertos principios, que gracias a la conciencia
  nos reprime si fallamos. Es de forma personal, regulan el
  comportamiento. d).- Normas Jurídicas: Regulan,
  garantizan y hacen posible la vida en un estado. Tienen
  carácter obligatorio, se utiliza la fuerza y las
  sanciones para garantizar su cumplimiento.
  Características: Son coercitivas (fuerza y sanciones)
  Son heterónomas, impuesta desde fuera (un organismo o
  alguien)

Son temporales, se pueden abolir, modificar o reemplazar.

SINOPSIS

Se reflexiona sobre el establecimiento de normas tanto
sociales como familiares, así como la importancia
de la conducta
congruente de los padres; entre lo que dicen y lo
que hacen; lo que le exigen al niño y su
propio comportamiento
moral.

en Cada sociedad tiene establecido su propio código
de normas y reglas que la rigen a lo largo del tiempo, y aunque
hay un proceso evolutivo dentro de esa sociedad, los cambios son
relativamente lentos. Este código de normas es arbitrario
y válido para esa sociedad, pero pueden no serlo para
otra, la cual tendrá su propia moral, ya que una sociedad
no puede subsistir sin la existencia de algunas reglas
mínimas que ayuden a los seres humanos a convivir.

Además de las normas sociales, hacia el interior de
la familia se
perfilan sus propios patrones morales. De ahí se desprende
que cada niño y cada niña se desarrollan dentro de
un contexto social y familiar que les impone a lo largo de sus
vidas una normatividad a la cual deberán adaptarse.

La micro sociedad que representa la familia, tiene su
propio sentido de lo que es bueno y lo que es malo, y esto va
desde cosas tan evidentes como el tipo de alimentación, hasta
sutilezas pocas veces mencionadas como la diferencia entre dejar
las puertas de las habitaciones abiertas o cerradas, determinando
con ello patrones de comportamiento sui géneris
en cada grupo familiar.

Con ello el niño aprende de la convivencia y sabe hasta
dónde puede llegar. Éste es un aprendizaje que
se da desde el inicio de la vida, cuando se establecen las pautas
de comunicación entre la madre y el hijo, y se va
enriqueciendo con los otros miembros de la familia que marcan al
pequeño con su propia idiosincrasia y filosofía de vida.

Así el niño queda dotado íntimamente con
las reglas de una moral establecida; de lo que son conductas
buenas y malas hacia los seres de su propio grupo, pero que
pueden ser una fuente de prejuicios para tratar a personas de
otras culturas.

La moral del niño es moldeada desde su nacimiento,
cultural y familiarmente, y está en la raíz de su
vida afectiva.

Cada niño y niña reciben normas sociales que
pueden agruparse en 3 grandes bloques:

• LAS NORMAS CONVENCIONALES,

Son las que determinan la convivencia social como la forma de
vestir, el saludo, el cuidado de los niños,
costumbres hacia la crianza y la educación de
éstos, situación que en ocasiones puede provocar
alegatos y discusiones entre los padres provenientes de ambientes
diferentes, e incluso dentro de algunos miembros de la misma
familia, por ejemplo hay casos en los cuales dos hermanos con
experiencias de vida diferentes educan de formas distintas a sus
hijos.

• LAS NORMAS MORALES,

Son las que se refieren a los aspectos de relación,
como el respeto por la
integridad del otro, la justicia y el
respeto a los derechos humanos.
Son normas que, junto con las convencionales, los individuos
comparten aunque no estén escritas explícitamente,
sino que se van adquiriendo a lo largo de la vida.

• LAS NORMAS JURÍDICAS,

Son las que están codificadas explícitamente y
provienen del poder
político, y cuya violación implica una
sanción o castigo.

Los límites
entre estos tres tipos de normas son borrosos; en realidad son
variables,
algunas sociedades son
más estrictas y otras más laxas, tolerantes y
abiertas.

Un aspecto importante del desarrollo
moral del niño, es que poco a poco y a lo largo de su
formación él debe establecer una distinción
entre la conducta y el
conocimiento moral. Esta diferencia se deriva de la
congruencia de los padres respecto a su propio desenvolvimiento
moral; esto es si hay diferencia entre lo que hacen y lo que
enseñan, así como en lo que conscientemente exigen
del pequeño y el comportamiento moral que exhiben.

Los padres no debemos olvidar que los hijos aprenden
más de lo que hacemos que de lo que decimos.

Function

WHAT IS A NOUN?

A noun is a word used to
name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are
usually the first words which small children learn. The
highlighted words in the following sentences are all
nouns:

• Late last year our neighbors bought a
  goat.

• Portia White was an opera singer.

• The bus inspector looked at all the passengers'
  passes.

• According to Plutarch, the library at
  Alexandria was destroyed in 48 B.C.

• Philosophy is of little comfort to the
  starving.

A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct
object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object
complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.

NOUN GENDER

Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to
men or women. Once, many English nouns would change form
depending on their gender — for example, a man was called an
"author" while a woman was called an "authoress" — but this use
of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that
are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational
categories, as in the following sentences.

• David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century
  actor.

• Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an
  actress in the 1780s.

• The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't
  decide whether he was advertising for a "waiter" or a
  "waitress"

NOUN PLURALS

Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding "-s"
or "-es", as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:

When Matthew was small he rarely told the truth if he
thought he was going to be punished.

• Many people do not believe that truths are
  self-evident.

• As they walked through the silent house. they were
  startled by an unexpected echo.

• I like to shout into the quarry and listen to the
  echoes that returned.

• He tripped over a box left carelessly in the
  hallway.

• Since we are moving, we will need many boxes.

There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the
last letter before adding "s". Some words ending in "f" form the
plural by deleting "f" and adding "ves," and words ending in "y"
form the plural by deleting the "y" and adding "ies," as in the
following pairs of sentences:

• The harbour at Marble Mountain has one wharf.

• There are several wharves in Halifax Harbour.

• Warsaw is their favourite city because it reminds
  them of their courtship.

• The vacation my grandparents won includes trips to twelve
  European cities.

• The children circled around the headmaster and shouted,
  "Are you a mouse or a man?"

The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they
were afraid of mice.

Other nouns form the plural irregularly. If English is your
first language, you probably know most of these already: when in
doubt, consult a good dictionary.

POSSESSIVE NOUNS

In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to
show that it owns or is closely related to something else.
Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an
apostrophe and the letter "s."

You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does
not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the
following sentences:

• The red suitcase is Cassandra's.

• The only luggage that was lost was the prime
  minister's.

• The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the
  drill sergeant's screams.

• The miner's face was covered in coal dust.

You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends
in "s" by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe
and "s," as in the following examples:

• The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.

• The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.

• The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's
  eggs.

• The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus'
  eggs.

• Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than
  Lord Byron's.

• Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than
  Lord Byron's.

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does
not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and a "s," as in the
following examples:

• The children's mittens were scattered on the floor
  of the porch.

• The sheep's pen was mucked out every day.

• Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury's
  verdict is not always final.

• The men's hockey team will be playing as soon as
  the women's team is finished.

• The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning
  but lost it in the afternoon.

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that
does end in "s" by adding an apostrophe:

• The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking,
  the ducks' quacking, and the babies'
  squalling.

• The janitors' room is downstairs and to the
  left.

• My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the
  squirrels' nest.

• The archivist quickly finished repairing the
  diaries' bindings.

• Religion is usually the subject of the roommates'
  many late night debates.

USING POSSESSIVE NOUNS

When you read the following sentences, you will notice that a
noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an adjective
modifying another noun:

• The miner's face was covered in coal dust.

Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun
"face" and together with the article "the," they make up the noun
phrase that is the sentence's subject.

• The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking,
  the ducks' quacking, and the babies'
  squalling.

In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The
possessive noun "dogs"' modifies "barking," "ducks"' modifies
"quacking," and "babies"' modifies "squalling."

• The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's
  eggs.

In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the
noun "eggs" and the noun phrase "the platypus's eggs" is the
direct object of the verb "crushed."

• My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the
  squirrels' nest.

In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels"' is used to
modify the noun "nest" and the noun phrase "the squirrels' nest"
is the object of the infinitive phrase "to locate."

TYPES OF NOUNS

There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you
capitalise some nouns, such as "Canada" or
"Louise," and do not capitalise others, such as "badger" or
"tree" (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In
fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types,
including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun,
the abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count
noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun), and
the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to
more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or
concrete, and countable or non-countable or
collective.

If you are interested in the details of these different types,
you can read about them in the following sections.

PROPER NOUNS

You always write a proper noun with a capital
letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person,
place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months,
historical documents, institutions, organisations, religions,
their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper
noun is the opposite of a common noun

• In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are
  highlighted:

• The Marroons were transported from Jamaica
  and forced to build the fortifications in Halifax.

• Many people dread Monday mornings.

• Beltane is celebrated on the first of
  May.

• Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the
  Koran.

• Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and
  a Gardnerian Witch as roommates.

COMMON NOUNS

A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place,
or thing in a general sense — usually, you should write it with
a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is
the opposite of a proper noun.

In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are
highlighted:

• According to the sign, the nearest town is
  60 miles away.

• All the gardens in the neighborhood were
  invaded by beetles this summer.

• I don't understand why some people insist on having
  six different kinds of mustard in their
  cupboards.

• The road crew was startled by the sight of
  three large moose crossing the road.

• Many child-care workers are underpaid.

Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as
in the following examples:

• The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing
  the large and sudden increase in their rent.

• The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less
  expensive than meals in ordinary restaurants.

• Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning
  Times.

• The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child's first
  introduction to the history of the Holocaust.

CONCRETE NOUNS

A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or
anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses:
touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the
opposite of a abstract noun.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are
all concrete nouns:

• The judge handed the files to the
  clerk.

• Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it
  spends hours chasing waves.

• The real estate agent urged the couple to
  buy the second house because it had new
  shingles.

• As the car drove past the park, the
  thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string
  quartet's rendition of a minuet.

• The book binder replaced the flimsy paper
  cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.

ABSTRACT NOUNS

An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which
you can not perceive through your five physical senses,
and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted
words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:

• Buying the fire extinguisher was an
  afterthought.

• Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about
  childhood.

• Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.

• Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is
  transmitted genetically.

COUNTABLE NOUNS

A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with
both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or
anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable
noun plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence.
Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and
collective nouns.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted
words are countable nouns:

• We painted the table red and the chairs
  blue.

• Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome
  spends every weekend indexing his books.

• Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe
  of a sock.

• The oak tree lost three branches in the
  hurricane.

• Over the course of twenty-seven years,
  Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred
  babies.

NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS

A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun
which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something
that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun
always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns
are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of
countable nouns.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are
non-countable nouns:

• Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.

The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.

• Oxygen is essential to human life.

Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular
verb "is" rather than the plural verb "are."

• We decided to sell the furniture rather than take
  it with use when we moved.

You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.

• The furniture is heaped in the middle of the
  room.

Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular
verb, "is heaped."

• The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.

You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.

• Gravel is more expensive than I thought.

Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular
verb form "is."

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things,
animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of
the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is
generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognise
collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A
collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is
roughly the opposite of a countable noun.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted
word is a collective noun:

• The flock of geese spends most of its time in the
  pasture.

The collective noun "geese" takes the singular verb
"spends."

• The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.

In this example the collective noun "jury" is the subject of
the singular compound verb "is dining."

• The steering committee meets every Wednesday
  afternoon.

Here the collective noun "committee" takes a singular verb,
"meets."

• The class was startled by the bursting light
  bulb.

In this sentence the word "class" is a collective noun and
takes the singular compound verb "was startled

Adjetives

Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or
thing in the sentence. The articules — a, an, and
the — are adjectives.

• the tall profesor

• the lugubrious lieutenant

• a solid commitment

• a month's pay

• a six-year-old child

• the unhappiest, richest man

If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an
adjective, it is called an Adjective Clause. My sister, who is
much older than I am, is an engineer. If an adjective clause is
stripped of its subject and verb, the resulting modifier becomes
an Adjective Phrase: He is the man who is keeping my
family in the poorhouse.

Before getting into other usage considerations, one general
note about the use — or over-use — of adjectives:
Adjectives are frail; don't ask them to do more work than they
should. Let your broad-shouldered verbs and nouns do the hard
work of description. Be particularly cautious in your use of
adjectives that don't have much to say in the first place:
interesting, beautiful, lovely, exciting. It is your job
as a writer to create beauty and excitement and interest, and
when you simply insist on its presence without showing
it to your reader — well, you're convincing no one.

Consider the uses of modifiers in this adjectivally rich
paragraph Adjectives are highlighted in this color;
participles, verb forms acting as adjectives, are highlighted in
this blue. Some people would argue that words that are part of a
name — like "East India Tea
House — are not really adjectival and that possessive nouns
— father's, farmer's — are not technically
adjectives, but we've included them in our analysis of Wolfe's
text.

He remembered yet the East India Tea House at the Fair, the
sandalwood, the turbans, and the robes, the cool interior and the
smell of India tea; and he had felt now the nostalgic thrill of
dew-wet mornings in Spring, the cherry scent, the cool clarion
earth, the wet loaminess of the garden, the pungent breakfast
smells and the floating snow of blossoms. He knew the inchoate
sharp excitement of hot dandelions in young earth; in July, of
watermelons bedded in sweet hay, inside a farmer's covered wagon;
of cantaloupe and crated peaches; and the scent of orange rind,
bitter-sweet, before a fire of coals. He knew the good male smell
of his father's sitting-room; of the smooth worn leather sofa,
with the gaping horse-hair rent; of the blistered varnished wood
upon the hearth; of the heated calf-skin bindings; of the flat
moist plug of apple tobacco, stuck with a red flag; of wood-smoke and
burnt leaves in October; of the brown tired autumn earth; of
honey-suckle at night; of warm nasturtiums, of a clean ruddy
farmer who comes weekly with printed butter, eggs, and milk; of
fat limp underdone bacon and of coffee; of a bakery-oven in the
wind; of large deep-hued stringbeans smoking-hot and seasoned
well with salt and butter; of a room of old pine boards in which
books and carpets have been stored, long closed; of Concord
grapes in their long white baskets.

An abundance of adjectives like this would be
uncommon in contemporary prose. Whether we have lost something or
not is left up to you.

POSITION OF ADJECTIVES

Unlike Adverbs, which often seem capable of
popping up almost anywhere in a sentence, adjectives nearly
always appear immediately before the noun or noun phrase that
they modify. Sometimes they appear in a string of adjectives, and
when they do, they appear in a set order according to category.
(See Below.) When indefinite pronouns — such as something,
someone, and anybody— are modified by an adjective, the
adjective comes after the pronoun:

Anyone capable of doing something horrible to
someone nice should be punished.Something wicked this way
comes.

And there are certain adjectives that, in
combination with certain words, are always "postpositive" (coming
after the thing they modify):

The president elect, heir apparent to the Glitzy
fortune, lives in New York proper.

PROPER ADJECTIVES

Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from
proper nouns. In English, proper adjectives must begin with a
capital letter. The proper adjectives in the following sentences
are underlined.

• E.g. The French town has an interesting
  history.

• Many of my friends are American.

• This house is a fine example of Victorian
  architecture.

The derivation of proper adjectives from proper nouns is
somewhat irregular. For instance, the spelling of the following
proper nouns and proper adjectives can be compared.

Many proper adjectives end with an or ian.
However, other endings are also used, as indicated below.

ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES

Adjectives which precede the noun they modify are usually
referred to as attributive adjectives. For instance, in
the following examples, the attributive adjectives are
underlined.

e.g. Heavy rain is expected.We saw white swans on
the river.

In these examples, heavy is an attributive
adjective modifying the noun rain, and white is an
attributive adjective modifying the noun swans.

A. ORDER OF ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES

It is possible for a noun to be preceded by many different
types of attributive adjective. In the following example, the
attributive adjectives are underlined

e.g. Two large red cardboard milk cartons stood
on the steps.

In this example, two is a cardinal number,
large is an adjective indicating size, red is an
adjective indicating color, cardboard is an adjective
indicating a type of material, and milk

is a defining adjective indicating purpose.

When a noun is preceded by more than one type of
attributive adjective, the different types of adjective are
usually arranged in a particular order. For instance, the
following example contains eleven different types of attributive
adjective.e.g. a small, heavy, snug, warm, 100-year-old,
round-bellied black iron Norwegian wood stoveIn this example,
a is an article, small is an adjective indicating
size, heavy is an adjective indicating weight, snug
is a general descriptive adjective, warm is an adjective
indicating temperature, 100-year-old is an adjective
indicating age, round-bellied is an adjective indicating
shape, black is an adjective indicating color, iron
is an adjective indicating a type of material, Norwegian
is a proper adjective, and wood is a defining adjective
indicating a method of operation.The different types of
attributive adjective are usually arranged In the order shown in
the following table.

USUAL ORDER OF ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES

1) certain determiners such as all,
both and half2) determiners including the
articles a, and and the; possessive
adjectives e.g. my, his, her, our and
their;demonstrative adjectives e.g. that,
these, this, and those; and certain other
determiners such as another, any, each,
either, enough, every, neither,
no, some, what and which3)
cardinal numbers e.g. one, two, three;
and certain other determiners such as few,
many and several4) determiners such as
fewer, fewest, least, less,
more and most5) general descriptive
adjectives, often in the following order:a) adjectives
indicating size e.g. large, long,
narrowb) adjectives indicating weight e.g.
heavy, lightc) participles and other
adjectives e.g. clever, excited,
interestingd) adjectives indicating temperature
e.g. cold, hot, warme) adjectives
indicating humidity e.g. dry, damp,
wetf) adjectives indicating age e.g. new,
six-month-old, youngg) adjectives indicating
shape e.g. barrel-shaped, round,
square6) adjectives indicating color e.g.
blue, grey, white7) adjectives
indicating materials e.g. cloth, leather,
metal8) proper adjectives e.g. American,
Victorian9) defining adjectives, usually indicating
purpose, method of operation, location,      time
or categories of peopleI. DETERMINERS

The usual order of different types of determiner is indicated
in the first four categories of the table above.

1) The determiners in the first category, all,
both and half, usually precede other attributive
adjectives.

• e.g. all three tables

• both the students

• half the red roses

Alternatively, before the article the, the words
all, both and half may be used as pronouns,
followed by the word of

• .e.g. all of the tables

• both of the students

• half of the red roses

2) The determiners in the second category of the table
above include articles, possessive adjectives, demonstrative
adjectives, and the determiners another, any,
each, either, enough, every,
neither, no, some, what and
which. A noun can usually be modified by only one of the
attributive adjectives in this category.

If it is desired to convey the idea expressed by a possessive
adjective combined with another adjective in this category, the
possessive adjective must be changed to the corresponding
possessive pronoun preceded by of, and must follow the
noun.

For instance, the ideas expressed by the phrase this black
horse, combined with the possessive adjective my; and
the phrase a book combined with the possessive adjective
your may be conveyed as follows:

• e.g. this black horse of mine

• book of yours

In a somewhat similar way, the determiners another,
any, each, either, enough,
neither, some and which may be combined with
other members of the second category of adjective by being used
as pronouns followed by of.

For instance, the ideas expressed by the phrase my
dresses, combined with the determiner any; and the
phrase these white flowers, combined with the determiner
either may be conveyed as follows:

e.g. any of my dresses

either of these white flowers

Since the determiners every and no cannot be
used as pronouns, the expressions every one and
none must be used. For instance, the ideas expressed in
the phrase these children, combined with the determiner
every; and the phrase their opinions, combined with
the determiner no may be conveyed as follows:

• e.g. every one of these children

• none of their opinion

3) The determiners in the third category of the table
above include the cardinal numbers, and the determiners
few, many and several. As illustrated in the
following examples, the determiners in this category usually
follow determiners in the previous two categories, and precede
other attributive adjectives.

• e.g. all twelve red roses

• their many exciting adventures

It should be noted that other usually precedes a
cardinal number when an article or possessive adjective is
present, but usually follows a cardinal number when no article or
possessive adjective is present.

• e.g. the other three chairs

• my other two cousins

• three other chairs

• two other cousins

In the first two examples, the article the
and the possessive article my are present, and
other precedes the cardinal numbers three and
two. In the second two examples, no article or possessive
adjective is present, and other follows the cardinal
numbers three and two.4) The determiners
fewer, fewest, least, less,
more and most usually follow other determiners.

• e.g. the fewest mistakes

• two more children

In the first example, fewest follows the determiner
the. In the second example, more follows the
determiner two.

II. GENERAL DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES

As indicated in the preceding table, general descriptive
adjectives usually follow determiners and precede other types of
attributive adjective. As shown in the table, there are several
types of general descriptive adjective, which often occur in a
certain order. However, the order of different types of general
descriptive adjective is more flexible than the order of other
types of attributive adjective.

a) Attributive adjectives indicating size usually
follow any determiners, but precede other types of attributive
adjective. In the following phrases, the adjectives indicating
size are underlined.

• e.g. three large, level platforms

• her two tiny brown lap dogs

• that enormous English dictionary

Below are pairs of adjectives with opposite meanings,
indicating size:

b) Adjectives indicating weight usually follow
adjectives indicating size, but precede other types of
attributive adjective. In the following phrases, the adjectives
indicating weight are underlined.

• e.g. a small, heavy parcel

• two light nylon knapsacks

The following are examples of adjectives indicating
weight:

• heavy

• light

• kilogram

• ton

c) Participles and other general descriptive adjectives
which do not fall into any of the other categories usually follow
adjectives indicating size and weight, and precede other types of
attributive adjective. In the following examples, the adjective
alert, and the participles twittering and
excited are underlined.

• e.g. two large, alert black cats

• eleven tiny, twittering birds

• many excited children

d) to g) The order of adjectives indicating
temperature, humidity, age and shape is not as predictable as the
order of other attributive adjectives. For instance, adjectives
indicating temperature occur sometimes before and sometimes after
general descriptive adjectives such as clear and
hard.

• e.g. clear, cold water

• cold, hard ice

It should be noted that the position of attributive adjectives
indicating age may be altered to change the emphasis.

• e.g. a new, efficient method

• an efficient, new method

In the first example, the adjective new is emphasized.
In the second example, the adjective efficient is
emphasized.

However, the most usual order of adjectives indicating
temperature, humidity, age and shape is that indicated in the
table. For instance, adjectives indicating temperature usually
precede adjectives indicating humidity

• .e.g. a hot, dry wind

• a cold, wet dog

In these examples, the adjectives hot and cold,
indicating temperature, precede the adjectives dry and
wet, indicating humidity.

As can be seen in the preceding examples, general descriptive
adjectives are usually separated from one another by commas. This
is illustrated In the following examples, in which the general
descriptive adjectives are underlined

• e.g. a small, triangular wooden boat

• those five thick, strong, two-hundred-year-old oak
  trees

Below are examples of adjectives which indicate temperature,
humidity, age and shape.

III. ADJECTIVES INDICATING COLOR

Adjectives indicating color usually precede adjectives
indicating materials, proper adjectives, and defining adjectives,
but follow other types of attributive adjective.

In the following examples, the adjectives indicating color are
underlined

• .e.g. threatening black clouds

• her new red leather jacket

• a square brown mahogany table

Below are examples of adjectives which indicate color:

IV. ADJECTIVES INDICATING
MATERIALSAttributive adjectives indicating the materials from
which objects are made usually follow any adjectives indicating
color and precede any proper or defining adjectives. In the
following examples, adjectives indicating materials are
underlined

• e.g. a beautiful grey silk scarf

• ten black plastic coat hangers

• the clean wooden floor

In modern English, most adjectives indicating the materials
from which objects are made have the same form as the
corresponding nouns. For Instance, the words silk and
plastic can be used either as nouns or as adjectives. One
of the few exceptions is the adjective wooden, which
corresponds to the noun wood.Below are examples of
adjectives which indicate materials:

V. THE POSITION OF PROPER ADJECTIVESProper
adjectives usually follow all other types of attributive
adjective except defining adjectives.

Proper adjectives are usually derived from proper nouns
referring to places or persons. In the following examples, the
proper adjectives are underlined

• e.g. sparkling French wine

• three red brick Georgian manor houses

In the first example, the proper adjective French is
derived from the place name France, and indicates the
place of origin of the wine. In the second example, the proper
adjective Georgian is derived from George, the name
of an English king, and indicates that the houses are built in a
style developed during the reign of that king.

It should be noted that proper adjectives may
sometimes precede adjectives indicating materials, as in the
following examples. This occurs when the adjective indicating a
material is used as a type of defining adjective, to help
identify what type of object is being described.e.g. Mexican
straw hatsan American pearl necklaceVI. DEFINING
ADJECTIVESWhen a word preceding a noun does not merely
describe the object being referred to, but helps to define or
identify the type of object meant, the word preceding the noun
can be called a defining adjective. The defining
adjectives in the following examples are underlined.

• e.g. an enjoyable birthday party

• a fine young man

• the new telephone directory

Defining adjectives are combined with nouns to
form fixed expressions, in order to refer to certain types of
things. In the above examples, birthday party, young
man and telephone directory are fixed expressions
which are commonly used to refer to certain types of things.In
many such expressions, the defining adjectives are words which
are usually used as nouns. For instance, in the above examples,
birthday, and telephone are words which are usually
used as nouns. In such cases, the fixed expressions are sometimes
thought of as compound nouns.

Many words which are used as gerunds can also be
used as defining adjectives, as illustrated in the following
examples.

• e.g. black hiking boots

• our drinking water

In this type of fixed expression, it is also possible for two
words to be used together as defining adjectives. In the
following examples, the words used as defining adjectives are
underlined.

• e.g. a roller skating rink

• a hot water bottle

Defining adjectives usually immediately precede the nouns they
modify. Many defining adjectives indicate the purpose for which
the object being referred to is used. In the following examples,
the defining adjectives are underlined

• e.g. an egg carton

• a coat hanger

• a dish cloth

An egg carton is a carton used for storing
eggs, a coat hanger is an object used for hanging up
coats, and a dish cloth is a cloth used for washing
dishes.As can be seen in these examples, when a word usually used
as a countable noun is used as a defining adjective, it is
normally the singular form of the word which is used. Thus, in
the preceding examples, the singular forms egg,
coat and dish are used.Defining adjectives can also
indicate the method of operation of an object. This is the case
in the following examples.

• e.g. a steam iron

• a ten-speed bicycle

• an electric light

Defining adjectives sometimes help to define the object being
referred to by indicating time or location

e.g. the morning star

the winter term

the front door

the kitchen window

In these examples the adjectives morning and
winter indicate time, and the adjectives front and
kitchen indicate location.

Defining adjectives are also used in fixed expressions which
refer to certain categories of people.

• e.g. a little girl

• a baby boy

• an old woman

VII. ORDINAL ADJECTIVES

Attributive adjectives such as next, last,
first, second, third and so on, are
sometimes referred to as ordinal adjectives, since they
indicate the order in which things occur.

When they are not followed by commas, ordinal adjectives have
the property of modifying any following attributive adjectives
together with the accompanying noun. For this reason, the
position of an ordinal adjective relative to other attributive
adjectives can affect the meaning of a phrase.

• e.g. the first reluctant witness

• the reluctant first witness

The two preceding examples have different meanings. In the
phrase the first reluctant witness, the adjective
first modifies the following adjective reluctant
together with the noun witness. This means that although
there may have been previous witnesses, the phrase refers to the
first witness who was reluctant

However, in the phrase the reluctant first witness, the
adjective first modifies only the noun witness.
This means that there were no previous witnesses. The phrase
refers to the first witness, indicating that this witness was
reluctant.

Below is a similar example, giving two phrases with different
meanings

• e.g. the second unpredictable year

• the unpredictable second year

In the phrase the second unpredictable
year, the adjective second modifies the following
adjective unpredictable together with the noun
year. This means that although there may have been more
than one previous year, the phrase refers to the second year
which was unpredictable.However, in the phrase the
unpredictable second year, the adjective second
modifies only the noun year. This means that there was
only one previous year. The phrase refers to the second year,
indicating that this year was unpredictable.As illustrated in the
preceding examples, the position of ordinal attributive
adjectives varies depending upon what meaning is to be
conveyed.B. PUNCTUATION USED WITH ATTRIBUTIVE
ADJECTIVES

As already indicated, general descriptive adjectives,
including adjectives indicating size, weight, temperature,
humidity, age and shape are usually separated from one another by
commas.

• e.g. the long, winding road

• a heavy, awkward box

• a cold, wet mist

• a small, square room

In contrast, determiners, possessive adjectives, adjectives
representing cardinal numbers, and ordinal adjectives are usually
not followed by commas. In the following examples, adjectives of
these types are underlined

• .e.g. those large chairs

• my new shirts

• two narrow paths

• the first tall building

In addition, defining adjectives, proper adjectives, and
adjectives indicating color and materials are usually not
preceded by commas. In the following examples, adjectives of
these types are underlined

• e.g. a large egg carton

• a beautiful Chinese vase

• elegant black boots

• a dilapidated stone building

However, it should be noted that in some cases,
proper adjectives and adjectives indicating shape, color and
materials may or may not be preceded by commas. In the following
examples, adjectives of these types are underlined.e.g. a
beautiful Japanese necklace or a beautiful, Japanese
necklacea small square tower or a small, square tower

• a thin grey cat or a thin, grey
  cat

• a black leather briefcase or a black,
  leather briefcase

When such adjectives are not preceded by
commas, there is an implication that the adjectives are used to
help identify the object being described. However, when such
adjectives are preceded by commas, there is an implication
that the adjectives are provided only for purposes of
description, and are not being used to help identify the object
being described.For example, in the phrase a small square
tower, there is the implication that the shape of the tower
helps to identify which tower is meant. However, in the phrase
a small, square tower there is the implication that the
adjective square is provided only for purposes of
description, and is not being used to help identify which tower
is meant.

There is also a distinction in meaning associated
with the presence or absence of commas following ordinal
adjectives. When followed by commas, ordinal adjectives function
similarly to general descriptive adjectives, and modify only the
accompanying noun.

• e.g. the last, lonely outpost

• the first, faint morning light

In the first example, the adjective last modifies the
noun outpost. In the second example, the adjective
first modifies the noun light.

However, as explained in the section on ordinal adjectives,
when they are not followed by commas, ordinal adjectives have the
property of modifying any following attributive adjectives
together with the accompanying noun.

C. STRESS USED WITH
ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES

In speaking, nouns are usually pronounced with more stress than the
preceding attributive adjectives. In the following examples, the
words which are pronounced with the heaviest stress are
underlined.

• e.g. a small, green cucumber

• an old, rectangular courtyard

In these examples, the nouns cucumber and
courtyard are pronounced with slightly more emphasis than
the preceding adjectives.

I. ADJECTIVES INDICATING MATERIALS

However, there are several exceptions to the rule that the
noun has the most emphasis. For instance, when a noun is
immediately preceded by an adjective naming a material, the
adjective is usually pronounced with the same degree of emphasis
as the noun.

• e.g. a leather belt

• a silver spoon

In these examples, the adjectives leather and
silver are pronounced with the same degree of emphasis as
the nouns belt and spoon.

II. DEFINING ADJECTIVES INDICATING LOCATION OR TIME

Also, when a noun is preceded by a defining adjective
indicating location or time, the adjective is usually pronounced
with the same degree of emphasis as the noun.

• e.g. the front door

• the fall term

In these examples, the defining adjectives front,
indicating location, and fall, indicating time, are
pronounced with the same degree of emphasis as the nouns
door and term.

III. DEFINING ADJECTIVES INDICATING PURPOSE

However, when a defining adjective indicates the purpose of
the object being described, the defining adjective usually has a
strong emphasis, while the noun which follows it has a weak
emphasis.

• e.g. brown hiking boots

• a red milk carton

In these examples, the defining adjectives hiking and
milk receive a stronger emphasis than either the
succeeding nouns boots and carton, or the preceding
attributive adjectives.

 3. PREDICATE ADJECTIVES

A. ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES WHICH CAN BE USED AS
PREDICATE ADJECTIVES

An adjective which is separated from the noun or pronoun it
modifies by a verb is often referred to as a predicate
adjective. The predicate adjectives in the following examples are
underlined.

• e.g. The horse is black.

• The streets are long and narrow.

• It is large, heavy and awkward.

In these examples, the adjective black modifies the
noun horse. the adjectives long and narrow
modify the noun streets, and the adjectives large,
heavy and awkward modify the pronoun it.

Most general descriptive adjectives, as well as adjectives
indicating color, can be used as predicate adjectives. In the
following examples, the predicate adjectives are underlined.

• e.g. The answer is puzzling.

• These envelopes are small.

• The bucket was heavy.

• The weather will be cool and dry.

• That child is young.

• The cake is round.

• The leaves are red, yellow and orange.

However, there are a few general descriptive adjectives which
cannot be used as predicate adjectives. For example, the
adjectives listed below are normally used only as attributive
adjectives.

ADJECTIVES USED ONLY ATTRIBUTIVELY

• chief

• main

• principal

• sheer

• utter

It should be noted that although they cannot be used with
attributive adjectives, pronouns can be used with predicate
adjectives.

• e.g. He is happy.

• She is proud

• .We are care

• They are successful.

Proper adjectives are sometimes used as predicate
adjectives.

• e.g. That car is American

• .This one is Japanese

It should be noted that hyphenated adjectives containing nouns
often cannot be used as predicate adjectives. When such an
expression follows the verb, the hyphens are omitted and the noun
assumes a plural form, if required. In the following examples,
the nouns contained in the hyphenated adjectives are
underlined.

• e.g. the two-year-old child

• the one-hour program

• forty-dollar shoes

When placed after the verb, the hyphenated adjectives must be
changed as follows:

• e.g. The child is two years old.

• The length of the program is one hour.

• The price of the shoes is forty dollars

.However, hyphenated adjectives which do not contain nouns can
often be used as predicate adjectives. For instance, in the
following examples, the hyphenated adjectives are underlined

• .e.g. the long-winded orator

• the wide-spread belief

These adjectives contain past participles. Hyphenated
adjectives containing past participles are frequently used as
predicate adjectives.

• e.g. The orator was long-winded

• .he belief is wide-spread.

I. ORDER

The order of predicate adjectives relative to one another is
generally the same as the order of attributive adjectives
relative to one another. The following examples illustrate the
order of predicate adjectives.

• e.g. The package is small and light.

• The weather is clear, cold and dry.

• The footstool is round and black.

In the first example, the adjective small, indicating
size, precedes the adjective light, indicating weight. In
the second example, the general descriptive adjective
clear precedes the adjective cold, indicating
temperature, which precedes the adjective dry, indicating
humidity. In the third example, the adjective round,
indicating shape, precedes the adjective black, indicating
color.

II. PUNCTUATION

As can be seen in these examples, the last two adjectives in a
list of predicate adjectives are usually separated from each
another by the word and, and any preceding adjectives are
usually separated from one another by commas.

• e.g. The clothes were clean and dry

• The dancers were tall, slender and graceful.

In a list of three or more predicate adjectives, an additional
comma is sometimes placed before the word and.

• e.g. The dancers were tall, slender, and
  graceful.

• However, this additional comma is usually considered
  unnecessary.

B. ADJECTIVES WHICH CAN BE USED ONLY AS PREDICATE
ADJECTIVES

The following are examples of adjectives with the prefix
a which can be used only as predicate adjectives, not as
attributive adjectives. The prefix a was formerly a
preposition meaning on.

ADJECTIVES USED ONLY PREDICATIVELY

• afloat

• afraid

• aglow

• alive

• alone

• asleep

In some cases, related words can be used as attributive
adjectives. In the following examples, words used only as
predicate adjectives and related words used as attributive
adjectives are underlined.

As illustrated below, the words here, there and
ready can be used as predicate adjectives.

• e.g. The children are here.

• The records were there.

• I am ready.

The words here and there are often used as
adverbs, and cannot be used as attributive adjectives. The word
ready is used as an attributive adjective only in certain
expressions such as ready money and a ready
answer

.As illustrated in the following examples, a few adjectives
differ in meaning, depending upon whether they are used as
predicate adjectives or attributive adjectives

• .e.g. The treasurer was present.

• the present treasurer

• Robin Harris was late.

• the late Robin Harris

• My friend is poor.

• my poor friend

In the sentence the treasurer was present, the
predicate adjective present indicates that the treasurer
was not absent. However, in the phrase the present
treasurer, the attributive adjective present indicates
that the person referred to holds the position of treasurer at
the present time.

In the sentence Robin Harris was late, the predicate
adjective late indicates that Robin Harris did not arrive
on time. However, in the phrase the late Robin Harris, the
attributive adjective late indicates that Robin Harris is
no longer alive.

In the sentence my friend is poor, the
predicate adjective poor indicates that my friend has
little money. However, in the phrase my poor friend, the
attributive adjective poor indicates that my friend is in
an unfortunate situation.C. LINKING VERBS